Robert K. Merton's Strain Theory

Robert K. Merton built upon Durkheim's concept of anomie but developed it into a more specific theory to explain why crime and deviance occur in society. His theory is called the Strain Theory or Anomie Theory.

The Core of Merton's Strain Theory

Merton argued that every society has two key elements:

Cultural Goals: The widely shared dreams and definitions of "success" that society encourages everyone to strive for. In the American context, Merton identified this primarily as material wealth and economic success (the "American Dream").

Institutionalized Means: The socially acceptable, "legitimate" rules and paths for achieving these goals. This includes education, hard work, thrift, and following the law.

Merton's key insight is that in a balanced society, there is a strong emphasis on both the goals and the legitimate means. However, he observed that in societies like the United States, there is an overwhelming emphasis on the goal of material success for everyone, but not everyone has equal access to the legitimate means to achieve it.

This imbalance creates a state of anomie (or "strain"). Individuals feel pressure to achieve success, but when the legitimate paths are blocked due to poverty, poor education, discrimination, etc., they experience frustration (strain). This pressure is what leads to deviance and crime.

Merton's Modes of Individual Adaptation

Merton proposed that individuals adapt to this strain in one of five ways. The following table summarizes these adaptations based on whether individuals accept or reject the cultural goals and the institutionalized means.

1. Conformity

Accepts Cultural Goals | Accepts Institutionalized Means

This is the most common and socially approved response. The individual pursues success through hard work, education, and legitimate channels. Example: Most people in society.

2. Innovation

Accepts Cultural Goals | Rejects Institutionalized Means

This is the adaptation most associated with crime. The individual still believes in the goal of wealth but innovates by using illegitimate means because legitimate ones are blocked or seem insufficient. Example: The drug dealer, the robber, the white-collar criminal.

3. Ritualism

Rejects Cultural Goals | Accepts Institutionalized Means

The individual abandons the lofty goal of becoming wealthy but rigidly clings to the rules and routines of their life. They play it safe to avoid getting into trouble. Example: A bureaucrat who has given up on advancement but strictly follows every rule without question.

4. Retreatism

Rejects Cultural Goals | Rejects Institutionalized Means

The individual rejects both the goals of society and the legitimate means. They are "in the society but not of it." Example: The chronic addict, the alcoholic, the vagrant—they have "dropped out."

5. Rebellion

Rejects and Replaces Cultural Goals | Rejects and Replaces Institutionalized Means

The individual not only rejects both the goals and means but also seeks to replace them with a new set of goals and means (a revolutionary ideology). Example: The political revolutionary or radical activist who wants to create a new kind of society.

Key Takeaways

Crime is an "Innovative" Adaptation: For Merton, most utilitarian crime (crime for economic gain) is a form of Innovation. It's a logical, if illegitimate, response to the pressure to be successful when the legitimate paths are blocked.

Focus on Social Structure: Merton locates the cause of crime in the social structure (the imbalance between goals and means), not in individual biological or psychological defects.

Explains Class and Crime: The theory helps explain why crime rates are higher in lower-class communities, where obstacles to legitimate success are greatest.